There is so much information about wine on the Internet that it’s easy to get lost in it. In practice, choosing the perfect drink that would appeal to your taste buds and harmoniously complement your menu for the evening is not so easy without the help of a professional sommelier.

The wrong choice can be influenced by common misconceptions about the quality of wine, disseminated by the media and amateurs. It is rather difficult to distinguish them from untruths.

KitchenMag has compiled a list of 8 common misconceptions that shouldn't affect your choice of the perfect bottle of wine for a cozy dinner.

Good wine costs fabulous money

Present on the market a large number of a wide variety of wines for every taste and budget. It is a delusion to believe that exceptionally expensive drinks can boast of good quality.

Each major producer has several lines of wines, among which there are also budget options. This category includes, as a rule, light young wines in the price segment of about 500 rubles. Tip: Buy budget wines from Chile and South Africa. French and Italian wines at this price may not live up to your expectations.

The best single-varietal wines

Yes, mono-varietal wines are good, but this is far from absolute and synonymous with ideal. There are wine-growing regions in which several varieties of grapes are mixed to prepare a noble drink. Blends help to achieve a harmonious taste, and are not synonymous with a second-rate beverage. The sweet taste of one variety will help balance the sourness of another, while bright hues will complement the neutrality.

The screw plug indicates a fake

Natural wine cork is solid, authentic and noble. But many manufacturers today prefer conventional screw plugs. Yes, they do not look so expensive, but they have a number of advantages. First, many wineries in a crisis can save money and produce wine at a lower price. Secondly, bacteria and microorganisms can form in natural cork, unlike screw cork.

Semi-sweet wines are of high quality

Semi-sweet wines, of course, can be of high quality, because they are present in the lineup of reputable wine houses, but this is rather a rare exception than a rule. Often sugar is used not to give the drink an interesting taste, but to hide flaws and errors in the production process.

If you always want to choose a wine that is ideal in composition and taste for dinner, then we strongly advise you to fall in love with dry and semi-dry wines. For lovers of something lighter and sweeter, rosé wine was invented.

The choice of wine depends on the food

It is widely believed that red wine is harmoniously combined exclusively with meat, and white wine - with fish. This is a myth that today has nothing to do with reality. The assortment of wine is so diverse that it would be foolish to limit yourself to some kind of framework and not experiment with gastronomic combinations.

Focus on your experiences and advice from the sommelier. You can find red wine to complement seafood perfectly, or white wine to pair well with poultry. It's a matter of taste.

Colorful labels sign of low quality

This is a completely unfounded stereotype. Competition in the wine market is high, so producers are trying in every possible way to stand out from the competition. If many wineries remain conservative in terms of the drink itself and its properties, then the label is a good opportunity to hooligan and catch the attention of buyers. There are many examples of bright, colorful and cheerful labels that accompany decent and expensive wines. Typically, these labels are chosen for light and sparkling wines.

The sediment gives only a colored drink

Many wine drinkers are afraid of sediment and believe that this is an indicator that the drink is not of high quality. In fact, it’s not like that. As the wine ages, a slight sediment may indeed appear. It comes from natural grape dyes and tannins. It is rather a guarantor of the quality of the wine, because the sediment in this case testifies to its naturalness and suggests that no filtration was used in the process of making the drink.

The quality of wine improves over the years

This misconception applies to many alcoholic beverages. Everything is purely individual. Not all wines become tastier and nobler over the years. Young wines, for example, only lose their enthusiasm and cheerfulness over time. It is better to drink them immediately, rather than store them for a long time.

Much depends on the quality of the harvest and the taste of a particular wine. If you want to buy wine for long-term storage, then first you should study the table of vintages and consult with a specialist who will help you make the right choice.

Some scholars claim the Georgian origin of this word and that it was borrowed by Indo-European languages ​​through the Semitic group. Supporters of this point of view argue that in the Kartvelian languages ​​the semantic connection of the word “wine” (ღვინო - ghvino, ღვინი - ghvini, ღვინალ - ghvinal) goes back to the verb “ghvivili” (ღვივილი, blossom, bring to a boil, ferment) and the root “GHV ”(ღვ), which is a common semantic root of many Kartvelian words (for example,“ gaghvidzeba ”- გაღვიძება - to awaken,“ ghvidzli ”- ღვიძლი - liver, etc.). Moreover, the earliest evidence of vine cultivation and wine production dating back to the 6th millennium BC. e., found on the territory of Georgia, which allows us to speak about the earliest naming of the final product in the Georgian language.

Wine classification

Wines are traditionally made from fermented grape juice. Alcoholic beverages produced using similar technologies from fermented juice of fruits and berries belong to a separate category of fruit or fruit-berry wines. Alcoholic beverages obtained by fermentation of berries, fruits, vegetables and grain crops or by mixing alcohol with juices (mash, liqueur) do not apply to wines either.

By purpose, wines are divided into canteens(used as a flavoring addition to the table) and dessert(served with dessert).

Color and quality

A huge number of different grape varieties are used in the production of wines, the most general division of them into black (often called red) and white. Distinguish by color white, pink and red types of wines. Whites are wines that range in color from light straw to amber or strong tea. Sometimes white wines of dark shades, infused with pulp, are distinguished into a separate category. orange .

Rose and red wines have many shades: from light ruby ​​to dark pomegranate. White wines acquire darker tones with age, while reds, on the contrary, fade, as the coloring matter precipitates or changes.

The sediment does not affect the taste of the product in any way, it appears 6-8 years after bottling (bottling). In vintage ports, sediment appears as early as 4 years after bottling, and this can be considered as a kind of confirmation of quality. To remove the sediment, a decantation procedure is used: the wine is poured into a decanter (decanter), and the sediment remains in the bottle. The traditional wine bottle (Bordeaux) has “shoulders” that facilitate the pouring process, allowing sediment to remain in the bottle.

By quality and aging time, wines are subdivided into:

• young (opalescence is allowed in such wines);
• without endurance;
• seasoned;
• vintage (the best, aged wines produced in certain wine-growing regions from the same grape varieties, preserving the taste and aroma);
• collection (wines with a very long aging, sometimes reaching tens and even hundreds of years).

Most dry wines over 40-70 years old cannot have gastronomic value. However, there are no rules without exceptions. For example, according to Robert Parker, renowned wine critic and publisher of The Buyer's Guide to Wine, some Bordeaux wines from the legendary 1945 and 1947 vintages. is still in great shape and will live for another 10-15 years. In another province of France, Jura, they create the famous dry "yellow wines" from the Savagnen variety, and they can live for about 100 years. Collection fortified wines can live for more than a century. An absolute long-liver among fortified wines is Jerez de la Frontera, vintage of 1775, which is kept in the oenological museum of the Crimean association Massandra. 5 bottles of this wine have been preserved in the Massandra collection. Two of them will be sold at international auctions in the coming years, and three will forever remain unopened, forever in the Massandra collection.

According to Russian standards, according to the content of ethyl alcohol and sugar, wines are divided into:

By grape variety

• Varietal wines - prepared from one grape variety and marked with the vintage
• Seage wines - made from a mixture of grape varieties by proportional mixing during processing
• Blended wines - produced from two or more batches of wine materials made from different grape varieties

Classification of wines in Europe

The European classification of wines, following the traditional classifications adopted in Spain, France, Italy, is based on the allocation of territories in accordance with the level of wines produced on them. The simplified classification adopted by the European Union distinguishes:

• Wine without Geographical Indication- wines without geographical indication, corresponding to table wines in the classification of individual countries
• Wine with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI)- wines made from grapes harvested in a specific wine-growing area
• Wine with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO)- wines made from grapes harvested in a specific wine-growing area and with regulated product quality control

Some wines

Winemaking

Production technology

Wine production is divided into two main stages: primary winemaking, which includes the processing of grapes up to the receipt of young wine, and secondary winemaking, which includes aging and processing of young wine. The final taste and bouquet of the wine is formed in the second stage. [ ]

The first operations of processing grapes in a winery: press and crushing. For the production of white wine, at this stage, the pulp is separated from the resulting grape must. Then the wort is placed in vats; With most technologies, bacteria are killed at this stage to prevent natural uncontrolled fermentation. Controlled fermentation usually takes place at a temperature of 20-22 degrees (for white wines) and 28-30 (for red wines). In this process, yeast ferments the sugars in grape juice into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation lasts from 4 to 10 days, table wines - 4-6 days, higher quality white wines - 5-7 days, red ones - 7-10 days. After fermentation stops, young wine goes through a clarification stage, when suspended particles are precipitated by the addition of various substances - whipped protein, bentonite (clay), gelatin. Depending on the specific production technology, the type of wine, and the method of its further aging, the wine can be periodically decanted to enrich with oxygen, centrifuged and filtered to remove small particles. [ ]

Use of sulfites

Many (if not most) varieties of wine contain sulfites - sulfur dioxide, or, as they are called in France, "Dutch match", used to stop unwanted fermentation [ ]. Sulfites are used in winemaking as a safe antiseptic. Of fundamental importance is the suppression of the growth and reproduction of various microorganisms, which can lead to sourness of wine.

Geography of winemaking

Greek wines are to a certain extent for scholars [ which?] a riddle. The alcohol content in them could not exceed 14%, because when the fermentation process reaches this concentration, further alcohol formation is suppressed. However, according to some descriptions, Greek wines required multiple dilutions before they could be drunk with pleasure. This suggests that they were more akin to extracts and tinctures of other plant essences than the wine we know today. This made them more chemically complex and therefore more intoxicating.

Greek winemakers in their practice of creating strong wine successfully used honey, since only this natural concentrated sweetness could provide the appropriate strength. The addition of coniferous resin to wine in Greece to make “retsina” may well go back to a time when other plants, perhaps hops, belladonna or datura, were also included in wine.

Armenian wines

Archaeological excavations in the Areni cave on the territory of modern Armenia have discovered the world's oldest winery

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of a scientific approach to winemaking in connection with the development of biochemistry, J.-A. Chaptal, a talented chemist and a prominent statesman under Napoleon I. One of the operations used by winemakers was named chaptalisation in his honor.

The prosperity of French winemaking was largely facilitated by the policy of free trade, namely the trade agreements signed by Napoleon III in 1860-1865, which opened the way for French wines to European markets. The golden age of French winemaking is coming. In the second half of the 19th century - 1864 - French winemaking was threatened with extinction due to pests of grapes imported from the New World, of which the phylloxera epidemic was the largest. This pest slowly but surely rooted all the vineyards, the problem was ultimately solved by grafting vines onto American seedlings, but the growers had to start all over again almost from scratch in the last decades of the 19th century.

Italian wines

Italian wines are widely distributed throughout the world.

• San Gimignano, a small old town in Tuscany, famous for its white wine Vernaccia di San Gimignano
• Chianti red wine of the DOCG category (Italian) is produced throughout Tuscany. Denominazione di Origini Controllata e Garantina- "the origin is controlled and guaranteed"), the most famous of the surroundings of the town of Greve di Chianti.
• Orvietto Classico Campogrande - dry white wine from Umbria
• Barolo, Barbaresco, Gavi, Asti (wine) - wines from the province of Piedmont
• Montepulciano D'Abruzzo is a wine from the province of Abruzzo. Montepulciano grapes produce red dry wines with a moderate acid and tannin content with a pleasant taste and bouquet.

Russian wines

In some regions of Russia, for example, on the Taman Peninsula, in Dagestan or the lower reaches of the Don, grapes have been grown for thousands of years. In the ancient Greek colonies of Phanagoria (modern settlement Sennoy, Temryuk region of Krasnodar Territory) and Gorgippia (now Anapa), winemaking existed already in the 4th century BC. e. In a more modern period, industrial viticulture and winemaking on the Don began thanks to Peter I, on whose orders, after the capture of Azov, vineyards were planted near the village of Razdorskaya.

At the beginning of the 19th century, wine-making in Russia became a commercial production, however, by 1861, some wine-growing regions were producing wine only for local consumption.

Ukrainian wines

The main areas for vineyards and wine production are the Black Sea region, Transcarpathia. Almost all types of wines are produced.

Moldovan wines

Azerbaijani wines

During archaeological excavations carried out in the Aghstafa region, in the vicinity of Shomutepe (a historical monument of the 5th-4th millennium BC) in 1962, grape seeds were found. Archaeologist Lorenzo Constantin, who studied the wild flora of the Caspian regions, including Azerbaijan, confirmed this fact. Archaeological finds in Uzerliktepe, Kultap, Kazakh testify to the ancient culture of grapes and winemaking (late III - early II millennium BC)

Spanish wines

According to the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV), in 2008 Spain was the third country in the world (after Italy and France) in wine production (35.9 million hectoliters) and the first in terms of vineyard area (1.2 million hectares).

Hungarian wines

There are twenty distinct wine-growing regions in Hungary. In the western and southern regions of the country, grape varieties are grown such as Pinot Gris, Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, as well as Cersegi Feseres, a local variety in Hungary. The varieties Blaufrankisch, Kekoporto and Zweigeltu grow in northeastern Hungary.

Global supply and demand

In 2012, demand for wine exceeded supply by 300 million cases, the highest in 40 years of observation, according to a BBC study. At the same time, wine production in the same year also dropped to its lowest level in the same 40 years. By this time, production had continued to fall since its peak in 2004, when supply exceeded demand by 600 million boxes.

In 2017, wine was ranked 93rd among the most traded goods in the world markets, the volume of world exports / imports is estimated at 35.8 billion US dollars.

The largest exporters of wine in 2017 were

• France ($ 10.7 billion)
• Italy ($ 7.01 billion)
• Spain ($ 3.37 billion)
• Australia ($ 2.23 billion)
• Chile ($ 2.22 billion)

The largest wine importers in 2017 were

• USA ($ 5.9 billion)
• UK ($ 4.07 billion)
• China ($ 3.06 billion)
• Germany ($ 2.94 billion)
• Canada ($ 1.86 billion)

Wine culture

Wine etiquette

Wine etiquette is the rules for serving wine, as well as recommendations for the combination of wines and dishes.

• Before a meal, to whet the appetite, an aperitif is usually drunk: Madeira, sherry, vermouth;
• White table wines are served with appetizers, light meat and fish dishes;
• Natural dry, semi-dry and semi-sweet wines go well with vegetable dishes;
• Dry red wine goes well with mutton, veal, game, poultry, barbecue, pilaf, boiled pork;
• Before drinking wine, you should enjoy its aroma;
• Wine should not be drunk like water, you should take a sip and hold the wine for a second on the back of the tongue, allowing the taste buds to fully experience the taste;
• Each type of wine is served at different temperatures: rich tannin red wines - at room temperature (18-20 degrees); light red wines - about 14-16 degrees; light white wines - about 12-14 degrees; champagne should not be cooled below 6-7 degrees.

Selection of glasses

Glass goblet

Wine is traditionally served in glasses. It is desirable that the glass be made of thin glass with a high stem. Tall glasses made of colorless glass are designed for dry and red wines; for semi-sweet wines, they are quite wide, open. For fortified wines, glasses are used that taper noticeably upward; for Madeira and sherry - glasses with a tapered cylindrical crown; small conical glasses are intended for dessert and liqueur wines. For sparkling wines and champagne, tall, narrow wine glasses are used, since this shape of the glass slows down the release of bubbles. The glass is filled no more than two-thirds in order to be able to rotate the wine in the glass, assessing the color and aroma of the drink.

Uncorking a bottle

The older the wine, the more careful handling it requires. A corkscrew is used to open wine bottles, preferably a screw. According to the rules, you cannot pierce the cork through. White wine it is advisable to uncork immediately before pouring into glasses. Red wine it is better to uncork it 30-40 minutes before drinking to allow the wine to be saturated with oxygen.

Wine tasting

Color assessment is the first step in wine tasting

Some producers recommend opening the wine and letting it breathe for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Before tasting, decantation of the wine can also be carried out to separate the sediment (relevant for old wines) and aeration (important for young wines).

During the tasting, the experts identify a number of individual flavors that appear due to the complex of organic molecules, such as terpenes and esters, contained in grape juice and wine. Experienced tasters can distinguish between grape-specific flavor nuances from other influences. Thus, the tastes of chocolate, vanilla or coffee appear due to the storage of wine in oak barrels.

Tasting stages

Tasting sequence: from simple to complex, from white to red, from young to aged, from dry to sweet, from less strong to more robust.

As a rule, tasting consists of the following stages:

This tasting allows you to determine the following qualities of the drink:

• complexity and character;
• potential (whether the drink will develop, change its properties for the better or worse with further aging);
• possible disadvantages.

Such a tasting allows you to evaluate the quality of the wine, and then create a description and compare it with accepted standards.

Disadvantages of the method

American food and wine critic Robin Goldstein conducted the following experiment: he organized 17 double-blind tastings (the brand and price of the wine was unknown to the person who served or whoever tasted it) in different states. Five hundred tasters, including both amateurs and professionals, evaluated 523 different wines at prices ranging from $ 1.65 to $ 150. As a result, the participants had to answer the question "How do you assess this wine in general?"

As it turned out, expensive wines did not score more points. Moreover, the tasters found expensive wines less pleasant than cheap ones. As for the professionals, they did not give a clear preference for either cheap or expensive wines.

According to the magazine The Journal of Wine Economics, the conclusions of experts often do not meet the criteria of expert quality, and the wines that won in one competition almost never receive awards in another.

The harm of wine

It should be remembered that ethanol is the basis of all alcoholic beverages, including wine. Depending on the dose, concentration, route of ingestion and duration of exposure, ethanol can have narcotic and toxic effects. Under the narcotic effect is meant its ability to cause koma, stupor, insensitivity to pain, depression of the central nervous system, alcoholic agitation, addiction. The effect of ethanol on the body is not limited only to toxic effects. There are numerous and varied biochemical and functional changes caused by ethyl alcohol.

The Alcohol Policy Coalition, which includes the Australian Narcotics Foundation, the Heart Disease Foundation and the Victoria Cancer Council, has released an official report that coincides with the United Nations commitment to tackling noncommunicable diseases. The authors of the report argue that alcohol is a significant factor in the incidence of heart disease, cancer and diabetes. With the help of the data of the report, the experts intend to appeal to the government and insist on the reform of taxation of alcohol producers and traders of alcoholic beverages.

After reviewing all the scientific evidence, Australian experts concluded that any beneficial effect of alcohol consumption for the prevention of cardiovascular disease is exaggerated. Cathy Bell, head of the Victoria Heart Foundation, adds that red wine, in particular, has no special protective qualities.

However, not all researchers consider wine to be unambiguously unhealthy. A group of scientists from Harvard Medical School, during their experiment, came to the conclusion that a couple of glasses of wine a day can help you lose weight and burn fat thanks to a special substance - resveratrol.

Wine in culture and art

In the ancient world

There are many myths about the origin of wine. One of them tells about the beloved Dionysus Ampel, who after his death was turned into a vine, which became a source of wine.

In the bible

In the Qur'an

O you who have believed! The intoxicating drink, maysir, [sacrifices] on stone altars [and divination] by arrows are bad deeds [inspired by] the shaitan. Avoid it, maybe you will succeed.
Indeed, with the help of wine and maysir, the shaitan wants to sow enmity and hatred between you and turn you away from the remembrance of Allah and prayer. Will you stop [these obscenities]?

Koran, 5: 90.91 per. M-N. Osmanov

Grape blood
As long as winemaking has existed, disputes about the usefulness or harm of wine have not stopped. Meanwhile about medicinal properties ah our ancestors knew wine as well as we did. Wine was an important means of social and personal therapy, and unlike today's Western layman, who professed the principle of consumer individualism, in the ancient world, human health was always considered as part of a harmonious order, that is, the health of space, nature, society.
God is in fault
Unable to operate with the data of biochemical analysis, the Greeks created a kind of mythology of health, in which the need for moderate consumption of wine (something that scientists all over the world rushed to prove at the end of the 20th century) was considered as a given, brought from above. Plato, continuing the well-known maxim of Homer that “wine for man is both vigor and strength”, taught in his “Laws”: “After all, Dionysus gave people wine as a cure for gloomy old age, and we are getting younger again and forget our bad mood, our cruel disposition softens, like iron put into fire, and therefore becomes more flexible ... ”How did the ancient Greeks, the direct teachers of Western civilization, understood wine and its life-giving properties? They believed that red wine was the blood of the god Dionysus. His heart, cut in the battle with the Titans and revived by Zeus, became a symbol of the vine, which, being divided into parts and planted in the ground, sprouts and bears fruit with life-giving sap. Having passed all the stages of transformation (fermentation) in oak barrels, the juice acquires the qualities to which the ancients attributed divine power, namely, to bring joy and consolation, a feeling of lightness of being and an organic connection with all that exists.
Alchemy of Winemaking
The idea of ​​wine as a living substance, akin to human, was reflected in terms of winemaking and in the very idea of ​​the nature of wine. It is born, lives, gains strength, its own taste, acquires dignity, grows old and finally dies. As you know, from a chemical-physical point of view, wine is a complex equilibrium system that is constantly changing over time. However, even a simple enumeration of the stages that juice goes through in its transformation into wine shows that the terms of alchemical magic or existential philosophy are more suitable for defining the nature of wine. Indeed: the birth of wine occurs during the fermentation of the grape juice, when the spiritus is released, i.e. "Soul", "spirit", the energy of the transformed material, capable of influencing the human consciousness, expanding it to one degree or another. Alchemists tried to isolate, to catch this spiritus by distillation. (Only in the 16th century did alcohol break out of laboratories and pharmacies and slowly but surely began to conquer the world, mainly in diluted form). The second stage is formation, a kind of self-purification, during which coarse precipitates of fractions fall out, the wine is clarified. After that, the young wine begins to ripen. Air plays an important role here, the alchemical marriage of water and air elements, which leads to the fact that the inner fire, the philosophical heat of wine becomes stronger and drier. Further, after the wine is bottled, there is a period of aging or, figuratively speaking, a second birth, when the wine, almost devoid of air, develops its qualities to the maximum, ennobles at the expense of internal reserves. Shades of taste and aroma are fully revealed in order, as the medieval monastery winemakers, who are alchemists, asserted, to gain immortality in the emotional sphere of man, directed upward, towards God, towards his creator. The dying of wine is associated with a decrease in the proportion of alcohol. Metaphorically, this also applies to the spiritus of an elderly, sick or desperate person.
"Periodic table" in a glass
Christianity willingly borrowed from paganism the divine-human symbolism of wine. The biblical metaphor, demonstrated daily during the liturgy, has, however, a biological correspondence that cannot be called anything other than mystical. The fact is that all 20 essential amino acids necessary for metabolism, growth and protection are found in red wine, and the content of those amino acids that are not synthesized in the body (there are 8 of them) in wine is close to that in human blood. Of course, this is not about the fact that wine can at least to some extent replace blood. Undoubtedly something else: wine is a wonderful vitamin and mineral nutrition of the body, which, as you know, almost does not synthesize vitamins itself. In this dependence on an external source of vitamins and mineral compounds, the rational meaning of a high religious metaphor is probably hidden.
What vitamins is wine responsible for supplying the body to the body? First of all, it is a rare vitamin P, which helps the body to assimilate and accumulate ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, a "scurvy fighter" and a vascular wall enhancer. Secondly, these are B vitamins, namely B1, thiamine, which is responsible for sugar metabolism and alcohol processing; B2, riboflavin, is involved in protein metabolism and energy production; B6, pyridoxine, whose role in the inhibition of atherosclerosis can hardly be overestimated.
The set of trace elements contained in wine, as it were, reveals the idea of ​​nature, which in fermented grape juice managed to create a kind of construction workshop for the organism. Wine in Burgundy is called "milk of the elders". One cannot but agree with this, if we take into account that more than 350 chemical compounds have been found in wine, and the "periodic table" is represented by the most vital elements. So, wine contains a lot of magnesium, which controls nerve impulses and is responsible for the transport of substances from cell to cell. Magnesium is the most important "heart" element, since without it, contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle is impossible. It is no coincidence that a glass of good wine is often prescribed for cores as a tonic. Scientists at Harvard Medical School have concluded that regular consumption of wine reduces the risk of heart attack and stroke by 30%, and also prevents blood clots. In women in particular, alcohol stimulates the production of the hormone estrogen, which is known to protect the heart.
In addition to magnesium, wine contains a lot of iron, the “winner of anemia,” and chromium, which helps the liver to synthesize fatty acids, including the notorious cholesterol. An average glass of white wine contains 15% of the daily iron recommended for men and 10% for women. Zinc contained in wine prevents hardening of arteries, is involved in maintaining acid balance and in regeneration processes. Zinc deficiency is one of the most common causes of male infertility and impotence. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many classic aphrodisiacs (natural stimulants of sexual activity) were based on wine.
The wine combination of potassium and phosphorus is unique in terms of its balance. This explains its leading role in the bioenergy of cells. Rubidium, present in red wines, helps to eliminate radioactive cesium from the body. To explain the vital importance of this process in our time, alas, is superfluous.
Wine is an important supplier of carbohydrates, primarily of the pectin group, which has a beneficial effect on lipid metabolism, in other words, pectins have the ability to bind fatty acids, including cholesterol, which facilitates their excretion from the body, and also normalizes blood clotting. Thus, pectins prevent the formation of atherosclerotic plaques on the walls of blood vessels. In addition, pectins are excellent radioprotectors; they remove foreign compounds from the body, in particular, radioactive strontium.
Antivirus program
Again, the antiviral and bactericidal activity of dry wine has been known since antiquity. The Greeks and Romans during their military campaigns carried with them flasks and waterskins, in which water was mixed with wine. Garlic was sometimes added to the wine. This super-mixture protected the body from the effects of pathogens, both internally, for example, with liver inflammation, and externally, when treating wounds. The protective properties of wine are determined by the presence of tannins, tannins. They have the ability to bind to proteins, of which, as you know, all living things, including bacteria, are composed. This connection makes viruses almost safe. Therefore, the richer the wine is in tannins, the more effective it is as an antiseptic. In addition, tannins facilitate the digestion of food, especially meat, which determined the custom of serving to meat dishes red wines.
As for ethyl alcohol, this, in the words of Louis Pasteur, "the scourge of the weak-willed," it will not be superfluous to recall that alcohol is a natural metabolic product. The blood and tissues of the body of an absolutely sober person contains an average of 0.05 g / l. The alcohol content in dry wine - 9-14% - is optimal for an adult's body, of course, if you do not exceed a daily dose of 300-500 g. Moderate alcohol consumption dilates the vessels of the heart, prevents the occurrence of a number of colds, stimulates the immune system. All this gave reason to Louis Pasteur, who devoted a lot of time to studying the medicinal properties of wine, to assert that "wine can rightfully be considered the healthiest hygienic drink", of course, if, as the French say, "not so much to drink as to taste."

Wine therapy boom
We must pay tribute to the Americans who are eternally concerned about their health: their scientists were the first to "knock out" funds from the government for large-scale studies of the effect of wine on the human body. At the end of the last century, after a 10-year survey of several tens of thousands (!) People who regularly consume wine, scientists concluded that among those who drank 1-2 times a day during the experiment, the mortality rate was 20% lower than in people who do not have such a "bad" habit.
However, the whole of France can serve as a clear example of the beneficial effect of wine on human health. The essence of the "French paradox" announced by its popularizer Dr. Renaud is that people who consume food rich in fat, but balanced daily portion of wine, have far fewer heart problems than those who do not drink wine at all. A recent study by Renault, which involved 34,000 middle-aged people in eastern France, shows that "wine protects not only against heart disease, but also against most types of cancer." Reno says as a true French: “If you grew up in the vicinity of Bordeaux, then your confidence in the benefits of wine is simply genetically inherent. My grandparents and all their friends lived to be 80-90 years old. And I know what is the reason for such longevity ”. Perhaps even more unexpected was the conclusion of American gerontologists: 1-4 glasses of wine (depending on weight), that is, no more than 350 g per day improve the memory of elderly people, and the best results in memory tests belonged to the female half.
In addition, researchers at Howard University in Washington have found that wine consumption lowers rather than increases the risk of retinal damage. As you know, the danger of such a disease increases sharply in people over 50 years old.
Recent studies in Germany and Denmark have found that those who drink 1-2 glasses of wine daily are 75% less likely to have stomach ulcers. In addition, the systematic use of alcohol kills the stomach bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which doctors believe is the root cause of the ulcer. Much can be said about the healing power of "grape blood". Perhaps the most accurate generalization of the problem was Hippocrates, the father of Greek medicine: “Wine is a wonderfully suitable thing for a person, both in health and in ailment; it is able to heal according to the personal constitution. "

Wine is a complex topic that mixes with history, culture, agriculture, geology and genetics. So is it possible to learn to understand wines without going into details? Partly. You still have to learn some of the nuances. It's much easier than finding yourself a sommelier friend.

Most popular wines

Do you want to choose “your” wine without spending your whole life tasting in search of the truth? Then you should pay attention to 18 different varieties, which are called "international". Here you can meet old acquaintances such as: Muscat, Riesling, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Pinot Noir, etc. After you try all 18, you really add experience to. At the same time, you can figure out your personal preferences.

Most popular wine regions

No matter how hard the Argentines, Chileans and others try, they will hardly ever succeed in surpassing wine titans like Italy, France and Spain. This is a trio of the world's leading wine producers that you need to know three things about. First, they probably produce the bulk of the world's wine. Secondly, they produce some of the finest wines in the world. Thirdly, France, Italy and Spain are the parents of all the most popular wines.

Different wines, different tastes, different experiences

Now that you already know at least something, it's time to find out about taste features wines. Some wines are sweet and tart, like cinnamon tart. Such drinks, as they say, are not for everybody's taste, and you won't drink a lot of them. Others will warm, if not just burn the back of the throat from the first to the last sip. The alcohol level in these wines is higher, and therefore a slow sip of wine ambrosia can lead to rapid intoxication. Finally, some wines leave a dry and bitter aftertaste in the mouth. This makes tannin know about itself - a substance that is responsible for the astringency and bitterness of wine. In order to find your taste, you need to know the 5 main characteristics of wine: sweetness, acidity, tannin, fruitiness (fruit notes that are in wine), body. The latter needs to be discussed in more detail.

Body

When they talk about the body of wine, they mean the density of the drink, which you can feel on your tongue. In other words, it is about the thickness of the wine. For example, a highly aged red wine will be full-bodied, while a plain chardonnay will have a light body. There is a simple example to help you figure it out. Imagine three types of milk with different degrees of fat content: 1.5%, 2.8% and 3.5%. In this list, the first will have a light body, the second - medium, and the third - full. Why is this needed? The body category of wine helps to describe the drink, choose the right gastronomic pair for it and express your emotions in relation to a particular glass of wine. Of course, in ordinary life you will not need this term. But now you know that the sommelier in the restaurant is talking about the bottle that he opens, and not about the shape of your girlfriend.

Sugar free sweet

Some people like sweet wines, others like dry ones. It's a matter of taste. But sometimes embarrassment happens. It so happens that when purchasing dry wine, unexpectedly for yourself, you find that, despite the dryness, it has a very sweet taste. And how could this happen if sugar was not added to it? There are several factors that influence the sweet taste, such as the characteristics of the grapes, the region and the aging of the oak. For example, if you compare French malbec with Argentinean, the latter taste will be much sweeter. The region in which the grapes grow significantly affects the taste.

Socialization tool

Wine is a kind of socialization tool. A glass in hand instills confidence in the individual, helps to hide nervousness during a particularly intense meeting or acquaintance. Wine unties the tongue, even allows one to overcome the language barrier. Wine is the only thing that unites two completely different people trying to strike up a conversation. The main thing is not to eat too much and combine the rules of consumption with the rules of etiquette. Then everything will be fine.

Wines that you need to drink right away and that will lie down

90% of the wine is intended for consumption in the year of its production. This is an indisputable fact. However, some wines improve with age. You can determine a wine that will get better from year to year thanks to four signs:
- residual sugar. This component of wine is often overlooked due to the popularity of aging dry wines. As it turns out, the most "long-lived" wines are usually sweet wines;
- acidity. Wines with higher acidity tend to last longer;
- tannin. Again he! Red wines with a higher tannin content live longer. But only if there is a balance between grape tannin and grape tannin oak barrels... Then it will gradually smooth out, and the wine will only become tastier;
- alcohol level. It makes sense that strong wines generally live longer. After all, low alcohol levels turn wine into vinegar over time. On the other hand, it negatively affects taste, so look for a middle ground between 13.5% and 17%. Unless, of course, you like fortified ones.

About vintage and non-vintage

We need to decide what “vintage” is. Of course, this word has nothing to do with a lousy group. Vintage is when the harvest matches the vintage. Non-vintage wines are a mixture of several vintages. This is done in order to preserve a certain style in the drink that is inherent in a particular household. find amazing wine for 500 rubles. The incredibly tasty Hungarian "Bull's Blood" cost only 4 kopecks euro, and gave more pleasure than the much-praised wines for 30 euro banknotes.

No need to strive for the "three whales" of winemaking, expand your geography! Taste absolutely wonderful Portuguese wines, delicious Georgian, distinctive Serbian and Hungarian wines, trendy Chilean, Argentinean and South African wines. Why Chile, very good wines are made in our country. And you don't need to pay 2,000 rubles for them. It is generally useless to chase after the label - you have to try. Wine is an accompaniment to life experience. And experience only multiplies when you try new things. Taste wines, don't get attached to legendary names. If you ask an expert about his favorite wine, he will not answer. Because he does not love the bottle, he loves the drink itself. And it is right.

This term has other meanings, see Wines (meanings).

Guilt- this is the most important component of the subjective side of the composition of a misdemeanor or tort, the internal attitude of a person to the action (inaction) performed and the resulting consequences.

Guilt in criminal law

Main article: Guilt (criminal law)

Guilt in criminal law is an element of the subjective side of the corpus delicti, a prerequisite for criminal liability. According to the currently dominant psychological theory of guilt, it is defined as the mental attitude of a person to a socially dangerous act committed by him, provided for by the criminal law, and its consequences. There are other theories of guilt.

Forms of guilt

In criminal law, two forms are distinguished guilt- intent and negligence. Within the framework of intent, direct and indirect intent is highlighted, within the framework of negligence - criminal frivolity and criminal negligence. Crimes with a double (mixed) form of guilt are also distinguished.

The deliberate form of guilt presupposes the awareness of the guilty person of the essence of the act being committed, foreseeing its consequences and the presence of the will directed towards its commission.

Negligence is characterized by a frivolous calculation to prevent the harmful consequences of an act of a person, or the lack of foreseeing the occurrence of such consequences. Negligence is less common than intent, however, in terms of its consequences, reckless crimes (especially those associated with the use of certain types of technology, atomic energy, etc.) can be no less dangerous than intentional ones.

The criminal law may also provide for a situation where, as a result of an intentional crime, grave consequences are caused that were not covered by the intent of the person. Criminal liability for such a crime arises only in the case when in relation to these consequences there was guilt in the form of frivolity or negligence. Such a crime is called a double-guilt crime and is generally presumed to have been committed on purpose.

The criminal law of most countries does not allow objective imputation, that is, responsibility for an act committed innocently. An act is considered to be committed innocently if the person did not foresee the socially dangerous consequences of his act and, due to the circumstances of the case, could not and should not have foreseen them.

Fault in administrative law

In administrative law guilt- This is an element of the subjective side of the composition of an administrative offense, it is defined as the mental attitude of the subject to an illegal action or inaction and its consequences.

Forms of guilt

In administrative law, there are two forms of guilt - intent and negligence.

deliberately if the person who committed it was aware of the illegal nature of his action (inaction), foresaw its harmful consequences and wished for such consequences to occur, or deliberately allowed them or treated them indifferently.

An administrative offense is recognized as committed by negligence if the person foresaw the possibility of the onset of harmful consequences of his action (inaction), but without sufficient grounds for that he presumptuously expected to prevent such consequences or did not foresee the possibility of such consequences, although he should and could have foreseen them. Administrative law, like criminal law, distinguishes between two forms of careless guilt - frivolity and negligence.

The delimitation of willful guilt from careless guilt in the commission of an administrative offense is of great practical importance: in some cases, the Administrative Code classifies only intentional actions (inaction) as misconduct, the establishment of signs of careless guilt excludes proceedings in the case of an administrative offense.

The guilt of a legal entity (as a subject of an administrative offense that does not have the ability to mentally relate to a perfect unlawful act) is expressed in its ability to comply with the rules and norms for violation of which administrative responsibility is provided, and in the failure to take all measures depending on it to comply with them.

Guilt in civil law

Guilt in civil law is a subjective condition of civil liability and is defined as the mental attitude of the subject to his unlawful behavior, in which the degree of his disregard for the interests of the counterparty or society is manifested.

The concept of guilt applies to both citizens and legal entities. The guilt of legal entities is manifested through the guilty behavior of their employees and proceeds from the ability of a legal entity, represented by its body (manager), to foresee the illegal actions of its employees and by its actions to prevent or suppress them.

Forms of guilt

In civil law, two forms of guilt are distinguished - intent and negligence (simple and gross).

Intent occurs when a person's behavior is knowingly aimed at violating an obligation.

With wine in shape negligence the person's behavior lacks elements of intent: it is not aimed at knowingly committing a breach of the obligation, but it lacks the care and discretion necessary for the proper performance of the obligation.

The absence of guilt is proven by the person in breach of the obligation. Thus, the offender must prove:

• what measures he took for the proper performance of the obligation;
• what degree of care and discretion he showed.

What is wine? Guilt in Psychology. Guilt

If the feeling of happiness may not be familiar to everyone, then what is guilt, everyone knows. The feeling of guilt is consciously cultivated in us from childhood by our parents and teachers. We grow up with the already established pattern: "if you know what the fault is, correct the mistake." Whether this is right, it is good to feel guilty or not, we will learn from this article.

Definition of "guilt" in psychology

Let's turn to scientific formulations. Psychologists associate guilt with a whole range of emotional states, intertwined, above all, with a feeling of "remorse." To be more precise, guilt in psychology means a person's experience of feelings of dissatisfaction with himself or with his actions, as well as some resonance between the behavior of an individual and the values ​​accepted in society. Some psychological schools believe that the feeling of guilt can only be experienced by members of a highly developed society, while people who are retarded and intellectually undeveloped are not aware of this feeling.

Who Can Feel Guilt?

Curiously, guilt is manifested in non-verbal communication even in animals. Remember what a naughty dog ​​looks like? The eyes are slanted, the ears are lowered to the head. If the cat stole the sausage, then after the deed he will try to leave, as he understands that his act is in resonance with the moral and social values ​​of the family where he lives. Consequently, the feeling of guilt is something that is familiar even to animals, not to mention highly developed and civilized people.

What makes guilt feelings?

According to the research of D. Unger, Doctor of Psychology, who was engaged in the study of what guilt is, this feeling of a person is made up of such components as repentance and admission that he is wrong.

Repentance is manifested in the accusations of the guilty person against himself. "Why did I do this?" - the one who feels guilty asks himself. The second component is admitting that you are wrong. This factor is expressed in feelings, shame, fear and sadness.

Why do you need guilt?

Why should a person experience a feeling that affects so destructively? There is an interesting version, proposed by Dr. Weiss, that this experience is simply necessary for building relationships between people. According to his theory, the sense of guilt is an adaptive quality formed in the process of long-term relationships in society.

Wine is an ambiguous concept. Therefore, there are many interpretations of this experience. The world famous Doctor Freud and his associate working in the same field of psychology, but somewhat later, Dr. Mandler, assumed that guilt and anxiety are one and the same feelings, called by different words. If a person has made a mistake or was close to it, he becomes anxious about the intended punishment. To get rid of anxiety, a person may try to make up for his mistake. Also, some researchers associate guilt with fear. Fear of punishment is what makes a person repent of a committed offense.

How natural is it for a person to feel guilty? Apparently, even if animals and babies can feel remorse, therefore, guilt is not an invented concept. But don't people confuse a sense of personal responsibility with a sense of guilt?

What is guilt in terms of real life?

Let's return to the childhood of each of us. It doesn't matter who raised the child, these people benefited from our obedience. As soon as the baby does something that is not pleasing to the adult, he begins to get angry and express his displeasure. Educators represented by parents and teachers can be understood. They believe that if you develop a sense of guilt in a child's mind, the child will grow up to be a responsible, serious and honest person. However, this is a big mistake.

What is the fallacy of artificial cultivation of guilt?

In fact, in every person there is what is called the "inner voice" or "the voice of conscience." When a person, whether he is a good citizen or a notorious swindler, does something wrong, he hears this voice. However, what is wrong? Theft, betrayal, treason, fraud, deception are dishonest things. But is it worth blaming yourself if you want to take care of your elderly parents and do not inform them that you have been fired? Is it worth it to feel guilty if you do not want to communicate with the person anymore and inform him about it? We are taught that for happiness you need to follow the expectations of others, and if not, then you are to blame.

Parents are the first to achieve this. The kid must respond to all their requests and instructions, in case of refusal, punishment occurs. Then, kindergarten teachers and school teachers impose certain behaviors in the school. You should study perfectly well, be quiet, not raise your voice or argue. Let's take a sober look at the situation. There are children who are born "excellent students", and there are mobile kids, who will make great athletes or dancers, so they have no inclination for science. They receive threes, comments, and along with this, parents and teachers develop guilt in them. Further more. The teenager becomes a young man, boy or girl, bound by all these restrictions.

Replacing a sense of responsibility with a sense of guilt

The current and modern society is largely composed of irresponsible people. This is not their fault, because it is the merit of the educators. Instead of fostering a sense of responsibility in the baby, he is actively implanted with a sense of guilt. What is wine? It is remorse for not living up to the expectations of those around you. What is personal responsibility? It is a sense of understanding that you cannot do wrong things to others.

A person who has not developed a sense of responsibility can commit atrocities and commit wrong actions absolutely fearlessly, if he knows that they will not be punished. If a person is fully responsible for everything that she does, then she is aware of all her actions not because of fear of punishment, but because of internal sensations.

Based on the above, the conclusion can be made as follows. The feeling of guilt is invented and imposed on each of us. If you are already an adult, try to move away from this feeling, replacing it with a feeling of awareness. If you are a parent and raising a child, do not make your toddler feel guilty for not meeting your expectations.

WINES are:

GUILT OF GUILT - the mental attitude of a person to his unlawful act (action or inaction) and its consequences. It means the person's awareness (understanding) of the inadmissibility (wrongfulness) of his behavior and the results associated with it. A prerequisite for legal liability. In criminal law, V. is the mental attitude of a person to a crime he has committed, expressed in the form of intent or negligence. V.'s prerequisite is the sanity of the person and the achievement of the statutory age of criminal responsibility. In civil law, V. is a condition of liability for a civil offense: non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment of a contractual or other obligation, an illegal transaction, causing property damage, etc. B. the person who committed the civil offense is presumed; to be exempted from liability, the offender must prove the absence of his V. (Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 401). In a number of cases, V. is not a prerequisite for liability (if the harm is caused by an entrepreneur or a source of increased danger). Form V., as a rule, does not affect the amount of civil liability. In international law, V. is understood as the established fact that a subject has committed an internationally wrongful act entailing his international responsibility.

A large legal dictionary. - M .: Infra-M. A. Ya. Sukharev, V. E. Krutskikh, A. Ya. Sukharev. 2003.

The legal concept of guilt is:

Guilt the legal concept Guilt (culpa, Schuld, culpabilité) is a necessary condition of responsibility, both civil and criminal, for unlawful acts. It consists in the internal attitude of a capable subject to the act he is committing. V. forms the so-called internal composition of the act for which the subject, or the culprit, is subject to responsibility. As an internal psychological element of an act, guilt is opposed to the very act that caused a certain change in the external world, which had known consequences - an external, physical element. Ascertaining in any case the presence of guilt, we state, at the same time, that this act is not only the work of a person's hands, but also a product of his inner world, his will, consciousness, etc. the assumption of a certain, internal attitude of him to the acts committed by him.

According to the difference in the concept of responsibility, the concept of guilt also differs. The broadest concept of responsibility — moral — corresponds to the broadest concept of guilt — moral; narrower is the concept of legal guilt. The latter, in turn, may be a criminal or civil fault.

Since ethics determines the responsibilities of a person not only to others, but also to himself, and normalizes not only a person's actions, but also mental movements, then any deviation from morality, even in some motives, in some thoughts, justifies the presence of moral guilt. V. legal always presupposes, on the contrary, any action that violates the law or legal norm. The motives, the motives that caused the action, do not determine the responsibility, but can only influence the determination of the size of it - and even if we are talking about criminal responsibility. V. criminal is comparatively closer to moral guilt. The latter was often even confused in doctrine with the former, just as the very realm of the immoral was confused with the realm of the criminal. The representatives of this view were mainly followers of the Hegelian school, which recognized unconditional free will and saw in both criminal and immoral acts a denial of absolute freedom, which is realized in law and morality (Köstlin, Berner). In modern doctrine, the criminal is distinguished from the immoral, although it is impossible to precisely define the border between the one and the other (Tagantsev, "Lectures" I, p. 32 et seq.). The elements of guilt in the criminal sense are, first of all, will and consciousness. Any act can only be imputed as guilt (imputatio juris, as opposed to imputation of the factual, i.e., the statement of causality - imputatio facti), insofar as it is a product of the will of the doer. For representatives of the theory of free will, indeterminists, the will of the doer appears to be the cause of the act, and at the same time the cause of the consequences of the act (Causa causae est causa causati). But for adherents of the theory of lack of free will, determinists, especially for representatives of the theory of the laws of human actions, will is also the main element of guilt. There can be no responsibility for actions that the actor did not want, to which his will was not directed. Will alone, however, is not enough for the presence of guilt; the actions themselves can correspond to the will of the subject, but the result of the action may not be at all corresponding to it, not only because the subject did not want this result, but because he was not aware of it or did not know about the possibility of its occurrence. Particularly important is the moment of consciousness regarding those criminal acts, the composition of which is carried out only by the onset of known consequences (for example, murder). For the presence of consciousness, it is necessary to foresee the consequences or an idea of ​​them. Finally, the third necessary element of guilt in modern times (Binding) is recognized as the consciousness of the lawlessness of the act (Normwidrigkeit). In the doctrine of criminal law, the concept of guilt and the meaning of the elements included in it are extremely controversial and until now is the subject of controversy; in resolving issues related to guilt, the teachings about the will of the conscious and unconscious (Hartmann, Binding), about the psychological moments of "representation" and "consciousness", etc. play an enormous role (see Sanity, as well as Intention, Negligence). In the system of criminal law, the doctrine of guilt by almost none of the criminologists is particularly distinguished from the doctrine of imputation and the types of guilt - intent and negligence.

In the history of criminal law, V. has not always served as a necessary condition for responsibility. In the era of the domination of private revenge, when the punitive activity of the state was limited to regulating the manifestation of revenge on the part of the victim, the inner moment of guilt did not matter: the offended one took revenge for the harm inflicted on him by the act of the culprit, regardless of whether the perpetrator wanted or did not want to cause this harm. The same indifference to the inner moment of the act dominates in the next stage - with the development of a system of compositions (compositio), a certain reward in favor of the victim, or the so-called vira (or vergeld - see these words). Only gradually and, mainly, under the influence of canon law, the moment V. acquires more and more importance; at present, no criminal legislation overlooks it. There are no legislative definitions of the concept of V., but a number of decisions on intent, negligence, case, error, etc., sufficiently clarify the relationship of legislation to the internal corpus delicti. An exception to V. as a necessary condition for criminal liability is made only for police violations (contraven t ions, Uebertretungen), that is, acts that involve not violation of any right, but only failure to comply with regulations protecting security or fiscal interest. For liability for violations, they are usually satisfied with the presence of one fact of violation, it does not matter whether it happened through the fault of the person brought to justice or under such circumstances that in other cases would completely exclude B. So, for example, the presence of goods unpaid by customs duty entails punitive consequences for its owner, even if in reality he was not guilty of the fact that the goods remained unpaid. See Violations.

Criminal V. has degrees. The evil will, or V., revealed in a criminal act, can be more or less intense, cause varying degrees of responsibility even if the act itself and its harmful consequences are identical. This property of criminal V. is based on its division into types, mainly on intent and negligence. The signs of these types are different degrees of both will and consciousness. Neither science nor positive law has yet developed precisely established principles for this distinction (see Will, Negligence, Intention). Along with the indicated types of guilt, distinguished in qualitative terms, criminal law also knows other degrees of V. and in any case recognizes V. as capable of modifying in quantitative terms. Therefore, it is possible to talk about a greater and lesser B. The size of V. depends on the circumstances under which the given criminal act was committed and which, in essence, could not but have a certain effect on the will or consciousness of the criminal, or by themselves reveal a greater or lesser degree of intensity ill will. Circumstances influencing the determination of V.'s size can therefore be both facts that preceded the commission of a crime, and facts that were simultaneous with it and that followed it, and not only external, physical facts, but also internal, mental (for example, extreme need, provocation , compensation for harm incurred from the crime, especially the means and methods of committing the crime, premeditation, frivolity, impatience, irritation, etc.). For the classification of these circumstances and their signs in doctrine and positive law - see Circumstances increasing and decreasing V.

V. is completely absent in subjects of the insane (see Sanity and Insanity), as well as in the presence of a case, that is, when either the act itself is not the result of the determination and will of the subject, but an accidental, external phenomena of nature caused by its action or when it follows from action, the result is an accidental deviation from the usual, which could be foreseen by the course of things (see Case). It is possible, finally, the absence of V., due to circumstances precluding the criminality of the act (necessary defense, the consent of the victim to harm him, etc.), or by circumstances excluding V. (for example, coercion - physical, vis absoluta, and mental, vis compulsiva; emergency, etc.). Circumstances of the first kind are called excuses légales by French lawyers, circumstances of the second kind are called faits justificatifs. The concept of civil V. differs from the concept of criminal V. Civil liability is broader than criminal liability; the first, therefore, can cause such internal phenomena that are insufficient for criminal liability. On the difference between civil and criminal V., the distinction between civil and criminal offenses or falsehoods was often based (Bekker, Fichte, Trendelenburg, partly the Hegelians Berner, Kö stlin, Hälschner; see about this, mainly, Merkel, "Kriminalistische Ahhandlungen", I, Leipz., 1867; Binding, "Die Normen und ihre Uebertretung", I, 2nd ed., Leipz., 1890; Tagantsev, "Lectures on Russian criminal law", I, pp. 51-64). For the existence of civil law, the usual consciousness of the illegality of what is being done is not required, neither is the foresight and consciousness of the consequences of the act required, but the consciousness of what is being done and the will to do exactly what has been done is sufficient (see Culpa).

Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb .: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907.